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The Cultural Autonomy of Ethnic Minorities in Estonia

Estonia has a long tradition of cultural autonomy for ethnic minorities. As early as 12 February 1925 the Parliament passed the first Cultural Autonomy of Ethnic Minorities Act, which affirmed that the Republic of Estonia respects the right of all ethnic groups to preserve their ethnic identity, culture and religious convictions. The Estonian Cultural Autonomy of Ethnic Minorities Act was the first of its kind in the whole world and internationally recognised as a successful endeavour to protect the cultural autonomy of ethnic minorities. In accordance with this Act, Germans, Russians, Swedes and other ethnic minority groups of more than 3000 members residing in Estonia were granted the right to establish their cultural self-government, whose field of competence was: 1) to organise, administrate and monitor public and private educational institutions in their native language; 2) to attend to the respective ethnic minority’s other cultural needs and administrate institutions and enterprises established for that purpose.

Up until the Second World War the German and Jewish communities in Estonia made use of their rights of cultural autonomy to preserve their linguistic and cultural traditions. The Swedes and Russians, who lived in compact communities on the islands of Western Estonia (Swedes) and in villages along the shores of the Lake Peipsi (Russians), and had schools, cultural institutions and churches in native language before the Cultural Autonomy Act was enforced, did not formally use their rights to cultural self government. However, they implemented it in practice through municipal councils, where they had the majority. Before the Second World War the ethnic minorities in Estonia had been long-time residents, and were well integrated in the local cultural and linguistic environment. In 1922 there were approximately 91 100 Russians living in Estonia, compared to 92 700 in 1934; the corresponding figures for Swedes were 7900 and 7600, for Germans 8300 and 6300, and for Jews 4600 and 4400. Other ethnic groups made up just 1 per cent of the total population. The percentage of Estonians within the population remained relatively stable during independence, at 87–89 per cent. This means that the ethnic composition in Estonia had come to a level of stability and the ethnic identity of the minorities was in no way threatened.

During the Second World War and the following Stalinist terror the population of Estonia decreased by 237 830 persons, or more than 20 per cent of the inhabitants. Most Germans and over 6000 Swedes left Estonia, and more than 210 000 Estonians were forced into exile, deported or killed. The annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union was accompanied by a state controlled large scale immigration. The imposition of planned industry created the economic background for a population shift in industrial areas, such as Tallinn and other major cities. Although the immigrants did not form an ethnically homogeneous group, the majority were Russians or russified minorities, which meant that Russian became the dominant language of communication in the affected areas.

At the time of the 1989 census there were 14 major ethnic groups living on Estonian territory. The proportion of Russians had increased more than six and a half times since 1940. The entire system of schools and cultural institutions had become Russian speaking in the affected areas. Even major ethnic groups in Estonia such as nearly 50 000 Ukrainians, 30 000 Belarussians and 17 000 Finns had no schools or cultural societies in their native language. On the contrary, any attempt to preserve national culture was considered nationalism, and lead to criminal penalties.

This ethnic oppression, as experienced both by the indigenous population and by recently immigrated non-Russian minorities, formed the background which made the national awakening process in Estonia an inseparable part of the struggle for complete independence. Tens of ethnic minority groups joined the movement for national independence. By January 1988 a cultural society of Jews in Estonia was founded, and a few weeks later it was followed by a Swedish cultural society. After six months there were already fifteen ethnic cultural associations. In September 1988 the first ethnic minority forum was held, during which complete support for the restitution of Estonia’s independence was expressed, along with wishes to preserve the identity and culture of all ethnic groups. On the same occasion a permanent body was elected to represent the political, social and cultural interests of ethnic minorities: Eestimaa Rahvuste Ühendus (The Association of Peoples in Estonia).

In 1989, this association proposed the highest authority of that time, The Supreme Soviet Commission for Ethnic Affairs, to form a work group that would draft a new law to update the Cultural Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities Act. Considering the drastic changes which had occurred in population and community (cf. Table), the Act of 1925 had become obsolete. The restoration of the Republic of Estonia in 1991, and the enactment of the new constitution in 1992 made it necessary to pass an Act on the cultural autonomy of ethnic minorities, in which all the social changes that had occurred were taken into consideration. The new law was prepared successfully and in a relatively short time by the work group that consisted mostly of representatives from the Association of Peoples in Estonia. On 12 June 1993, the Act was presented to the Parliament, and it was passed on 26 October the same year.

The new Cultural Autonomy of Ethnic Minorities Act is grounded on the same basic ideas as that of 1925: the acceptance of ethnic minorities’ right to preserve their ethnic identity, culture and language. At the same time, the Act gives the corresponding legal guarantees and guidelines. The Act defines an ethnic minority those citizens of Estonia who reside on Estonian territory, have maintained a long and lasting attachment to the country they live in, and wish to preserve their original cultural traditions, language and religion. The right to form institutions for cultural self-government can be obtained by all those ethnic minority groups to which this right was given by the Act of 1925, and by other ethnic groups of more than 3000 persons. Until Estonia’s large non-citizen population gains citizenship step-by-step, in a lawful and orderly way, non-citizens will continue to constitute an important part of the overall population (cf. Table). The Act grants these people the right to participate in cultural autonomy activities, although they may not vote or be elected for the leading organs. An ethnic minority group which is entitled to cultural autonomy can, by direct and uniform elections with a secret vote, elect their own cultural council, which constitutes the highest organ of authority and representation within the frames of cultural autonomy. The regulations for the elections to the cultural council are drafted and authorised by the Government of the Republic. This is the single function of the states’ executive power in forming the institutions for cultural self-government.

The cultural autonomy organisations must base their activities on Estonian legislation and on their own regulations. The cultural council of an ethnic minority can form regional cultural boards according to their needs, appoint cultural deputies and found ethnic cultural institutions, schools, social and health care establishments, publishing houses and so on. The cultural autonomy institutions can own property and are liable for their financial obligations. Resources originate from specific allocations, partly from the state budget, partly from local budgets, as well as from membership fees and donations from enterprises, organisations and private persons. The resources are used to provide education in the mother tongue, and as funds for scholarships and awards for promoting ethnic culture.

The Cultural Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities Act is not of an obliging nature. Its purpose is to encourage ethnic minorities to make use of their constitutional rights. The task of the national authorities is to provide legal guarantees, without interfering in each ethnic group or individual’s right to decide for themselves in all matters concerning preservation of their ethnic identity, cultural traditions and mother tongue.

Data from: Changing Identities in Estonia. Sociological Facts and Commentaries. Estonian Science Foundation. Estonian Academy of Sciences, Institute of International and Social studies. Tallinn 1994.

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This fact sheet was published by the Estonian Institute in May, 1996 and is intended to be used for reference purposes. It may be freely used in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgement is necessary.